Quick Jump
Domestication
The earliest signs of domestication have been found in the Middle East and go back about 30,000 years. It is well known that domestic dogs have wolves as their ancestors. There are two common theories as to how that occurred. The first is that wolves started self-domesticating themselves by selecting for lower flight distance. Less fearful wolves would be able to approach human camps and access refuse as a food source. The other thought is that humans kidnapped wolf puppies and raise them as pets. As humans identified wolves as symbiotic partners, our behavior likely changed to encourage that relationship.
With time and the development of agriculture, the domestic dog developed into a completely different species from their wolf ancestors. While they may be able to interbreed, these two species inhabit very different ecological niches. Dogs require humans to survive and act as scavengers. Wolves need hundreds of square miles for hunting and often avoid humans. Dogs are essentially neotenized wolves. This means, they may grow into “adults,” but they remain behaviorally and socially immature for life. They bark, play, wag their tails, and are more sociable. This is one of the reasons our species is so closely bonded to the dog – they’re babies forever.
Vision
A dog’s eyesight is similar to a human, though not quite as acute and with less color range. Dogs are dichromatic, meaning they only see two colors: blue and yellow. Anything with a strong red component will appear grey. They also have lower visual acuity. Normal vision for humans is 20/20. Normal vision for dogs is about 20/75. This means that dogs are “near sighted” and see objects better up close. They can see an object 20 feet away as well as a human might 75 feet away. This also means they tend to see moving objects much better than stationary, since they have a narrower window of focus.
Hearing
While humans may have superior vision, dogs have better hearing. They can hear up to 45,000 Hz compared to our 12,000 Hz. This is why dogs respond to “dog whistles,” but most humans cannot hear them. The pitch is far too high for our ears. While dogs may hear a wider range of sounds, humans tend to be better at localizing them. This is why many dogs focus intently on or may tilt their head to help them find where an odd noise is originating. Also, as one might expect, dogs with erect ears have better hearing than those with floppy ears.
Smell
Dog hearing is good, but their sense of smell is amazing. Depending on the breed, a dog’s sense of smell can be 10,000 to 100,000 times better than humans. Not only do they have visually longer noses, but they also have a complex of mazes in their noses, called turbinates, which significantly increases the surface area on which olfactory cells can populate. Finally, humans only have 2-4 cells per cm2 whereas dogs have 20-200 per cm2! Their sense of smell is highly developed and often underutilized while living in our human world.
Touch
The sense of touch refers to any perception by the skin. As receptors in the skin and the neurology of a dog are very similar to that of humans, it is assumed that they perceive physical contact very similarly. While dogs have, overall, thicker skin, they have fewer layers than humans. Their outer layer is very thin and sensitive. Dogs do not bruise very easily, so trauma needs to be significant for them to develop. Most dogs are covered in a thick layer of fur. There are touch receptors at the base of each one, the most sensitive of which as associated with the whiskers.
Cognition & Emotions
Dogs have the emotions and cognitive ability of a 3-year-old human child. Most behaviors are driven by biological need, sense of normal, and history of consequences. Another way to look at it is their instinct, socialization, and learning history. As far as we know, dogs have no sense of self or consciousness, so their motivations and emotional development will be limited. This means they cannot be malicious, stubborn, or feel guilt. They have no sense of morality.
We will further explore these concepts in our discussion of body language and learning. For now, it is best to assess your dog’s perception of a situation at face value. He’s showing signs of distress because of what is happening right now – not what happened 20 minutes ago. Emotional states should be interpreted as positive or negative. Avoid using terms like “okay” or “fine” – they typically mean it wasn’t fine.
Social Structure
Contrary to popular media, dog behavior is extremely different to wolves. The domesticated dog is its own distinct species with needs and behaviors of their own. Based on world-wide population, the “average” dog is a village or street dog. They live near and around humans, living off their refuse.
Dog social structure is based off a relationship called resource holding potential. It is highly flexible, and changes based on the context. A resource is any area or object of importance: food, water, warmth, shelter. If two dogs approach a resource, they will use body language to communicate their level of need. The dog who needs the item less, walks away. For example, a starving puppy who finds a food source will indicate their need through aggression, which are distance increasing behaviors. An adult dog, who is better equipped to find other foodstuffs, is likely to walk away and let the puppy have their meal. These relationships are fairly similar to our human social structure. There will be some degree of rank that goes into the negotiations, but many of us are willing to give way if another expressed a higher level of need.
This contrasts with dominance-based social structures. In this structure, strict rank is determined through repeated interactions. Dominance is a relationship between two individuals. Once rank is established, there is no negotiation. If a dominant horse approaches another, the subordinate gives way. This social structure is how horse herds and many bird populations interact.
Additionally, dogs have been bred to be highly sociable with humans. The average dog is very socially selective. Left to their own devices, most will have 2-5 canine “preferred associates” with which they spend their time. They may live in large groups because they congregate around humans and food sources, but they do not all intermingle and socialize together. We often see this translate in our first world dogs in leash reactivity and avoidance of other dogs in dog parks.
Manifestation of underlying emotional states can also vary depending on where the dog is and who they are with. It is a common misunderstanding that dogs are “protective” of their people. The reason dogs are more reactive with certain individuals is because they feel more emboldened. This is similar to our children: at Grandma’s house they are on their best behavior, but with their parents they are little hellions. They feel comfortable enough to express when they nervous or fearful. If with someone new or even in a new place, they “shut down” or inhibit their behaviors. Dogs are not protective of anyone except themselves.
Another large part of canine social behavior is body language. We will dedicate another full resource to this discussion.
Ingestive Behavior & Nutrition
Dogs are omnivorous. Unlike their wolf ancestors, dogs can digest starches, which allows them the ability to consume and benefit from a wide variety of foods. Dogs can eat many of the same foods that we can, including fruits, vegetables, grains, and proteins. Certain foods such as chocolate and tree nuts, however, are toxic. The average adult dog should have a diet that consists of 25-30% protein, up to 50% carbohydrates, and the remainder as fat.
The average dog is a scavenger. They will have one large meal, then rest for the rest of the day. In first world countries, food is often used as a source of enrichment and education for pets and animals living in confinement. It is considered best practice to put meals in feeder toys that encourage activation of the seeking part of the brain. The dog may need to throw, paw at, or move certain parts of the toy to access their food. Soft foods can be placed in hollow, rubber toys that the dog then slowly licks out. Freezing them can further lengthen the feeding process. As all living things require food to survive, food is also often used as a motivation during training.
It is typically recommended that dogs consume a commercially developed, grain inclusive, moderate protein diet. Appropriately balancing nutrition is highly complicated. Homemade diets are only recommended under the supervision of a veterinary nutritionist as the majority of them will cause medical issues in the long term. Normal dogs will happily consume their meals when provided and be moderately excited about the food preparation process. Dogs that lose interest in specific flavors, have sporadic appetites, or show other signs of deviating from the “average” should be assessed for medical problems influencing their GI tract.
The amount of food a dog needs to eat will rely on their biology, metabolism, health status, and activity levels. The recommended feeding amount of the bag will be much higher to ensure those dogs with higher metabolism will not lose weight. Unfortunately, the average pet dog needs far less than those. We use a mathematical formula to calculate the dietary needs of our dogs.
Elimination Behavior
The average dog needs to urinate 5-7 times per day and defecate 1-3 times per day. Note that urination, or voiding, is different from urine marking. Dogs develop elimination preferences early in life and, through experience, further solidify those preferences by about 12 months of age. House training relies on two factors: location preference and substrate preference. The location preference is where and the substrate is what they prefer. Puppies start developing their substrate preference by 8 weeks of age, so it is important for breeders and puppy raisers to expose their litter to grass, dirt, and gravel as soon as possible. Dogs will naturally avoid eliminating where they sleep and eat, but other than that they have no natural understanding of what is an appropriate toileting area and what is not. Without proper guidance and supervision, dogs will eliminate where it is most convenient: in your house.
Certain behaviors and biological functions may stimulate or precipitate the need for voiding. Waking up from a nap, having a large drink, or playing can stimulate the need to urinate. Eating will often stimulate the need to defecate. Most dogs have a specific elimination ritual. They will travel to their location/substrate preference, sniff the area while slowly walking for 10-30 seconds, posture to eliminate, void, turn around, sniff their excrement, and then walk away. When urinating female dogs tend to squat, though some may lift one hind leg. Males can either squat or lift a hind leg to urinate on an elevated surface. Leg lifting is often a learned behavior, so not all males will develop this preference.
During the housetraining process, most dogs will learn a way to “request” going outside. The most common is sitting and staring, whining or barking, pawing at, or acting agitated by a doorway. These behaviors are then reinforced by the owner taking the pet outside. Many pet owners use bells attached to the inside of the door to help encourage the dog’s request to go outside when needed. It is also important to note that housetraining does not generalize very well. This means if you take your dog to a friend’s house or go to a pet store, they may not recognize it as a “no pee” area and eliminate while there. Until you know your dog better, assume they are not “housetrained” in this “house” and closely supervise them while visiting.
Play Behavior
Play styles and play drive are developed from the dog’s biology and socialization history. Dogs that are not taught how to play with toys as puppies will not use them as adults. Appropriate play consists of good communication, frequent check ins, and respecting the personal preferences of their play mates.
To initial play, one dog will approach another. If they are new, the dogs will approach on the diagonal, sniff each other, then circle around to investigate each other hind ends. After the investigation is complete, one dog will attempt to initiate play most commonly with a “play bow.” The play bow consists of dropping the front end to the ground, while keeping the hind end in the standing position. This dog will also typically have a mid- to high-level tail wag. This dog may then jump up and back, hop from side to side, jump towards the other dog again, and/or bark. If the second dog is interested, they typically display one or more of these behaviors back and then the two initiate their play.
Healthy play between dogs can be very loud and sound vicious at times. It is important to assess appropriate play based on body language, not vocalizations. There should be frequent breaks and check-ins. Meaning, if the two dogs are playing chase, periodically they should stop, look away from each other, lip lick, then initiate play with the previously described behavior again. If, during one of these check ins one dog does not reciprocate, it means they need a break from play. There should also be a lot of role reversals. When wrestling, one dog will flop over and opt to wrestle from the bottom. They then have their natural check in and break, then the other dog should opt to take the bottom position. Play can escalate into fights if one dog does not respect the other’s need for a break or if there is no role reversal and one dog monopolizes the top position.
Dogs also often enjoy object-oriented play. This could be tug of war or keep away. Tug involves having an object, or toy, that the dog will bring up to another dog to initiate play. Their play partner will then grab the other end and the two play “tug of war.” Occasionally one will let go, allowing the other the opportunity to either initiate a game of chase or another round of tugging. Playing tug of war with your dog does not encourage aggression. It is a normal, appropriate outlet for your dog and a wonderful bonding experience. Keep away, on the other hand, is a game where one dog will show another the toy, then run away from them. The other dog then chases, attempts to grab the toy, or initiates a wrestling game.
All puppies should be interested in play, regardless of their breed or genetic predispositions. As they mature, some may lose interest or change their play style. Certain groups of dogs, such as livestock guardian breeds, tend to lose much of their play drive in adulthood. Others, such as herder breeds, should retain a strong prey drive well into maturity. Lack of play in puppies less than 6 months of age can be an indication of a serious physical or emotional abnormality.
Sleeping Behavior
Normal dogs are lazy unless actively engaged with their humans. They do not tend to get “bored” in the same sense that humans do. Our sleep-wake cycles are very different. Humans, as hunter-gatherers, needed to be awake for large parts of the day. Dogs, as scavengers, need only a fraction of that time. A normal dog sleeps 16 – 20 hours per day. They tend to have a long sleep overnight (8-10 hours), a shorter long sleep (1-3 hours) during midday, and then sporadic naps throughout. No dog, regardless of their breeding, should be awake all day. Lack of sleep is often caused by an underlying emotional or physical problem. This then creates a vicious cycle of feeling poorly, not sleeping, resulting in feeling worse, resulting in worse sleep, etc.
Dog sleeping locations and positions can vary. Some dogs prefer to sleep curled up in a tight ball while others stretch out on their backs. Most dogs will prefer soft, supportive, but easy to get out of surfaces. Some dog beds are too soft and too deep to easily extricate themselves from, especially as they get older. Others may prefer areas that are cool versus warm. It is best to follow your dog’s sleep patterns, determine their average, then monitor for changes over time. Sleep patterns can change in the early days of disease processes so is an important factor when assessing overall health of your pet.
Sexual Behavior
Dogs reach sexual maturity between 6 and 18 months of age, depending on their health status and genetic predisposition. It ranges from 4 – 24 months, which 6 months of age being the average. Puberty starts when a female has their first heat cycle, and a male begins producing sperm.
Female dogs are diestrus, meaning they have two heat cycles per year. The full cycle is called the estrus cycle. When the female’s vulva enlarges and she develops bloody discharge, she is still preparing for copulation and pregnancy. She will not be receptive to a male during this time. It is the following week, when the bloody discharge goes away, that she can mate and become pregnant. This phase lasts 7-9 days. The following phases encompass the calming down of the reproductive system and then entering an inactive stage for several months.
During their heat cycle, bitches are not very selective with their partners. There is often ritualized behavior in the form of play, excessive sniffing, etc. prior to actual copulation. When a female is ready for coitus, she will flag her tail and allow the male to mount her from behind. Soon after insertion, the bulbus glandis, located at the base of the penis, will enlarge and prevent them from disengaging. This causes a “coital lock,” or “tying.” Soon after tying, the male will dismount and the two stand “butt-to-butt” for 10-30 minutes. Do not attempt to pull tied dogs apart as it will cause severe damage to both of their reproductive organs.
If two puppies from the same litter are housed and allowed access to each other during the sister’s standing heat – they will breed. Castrated males can also develop erections and copulate with an intact female. Females can breed with more than one male, resulting in a litter that has multiple fathers.
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